History : Hoysala Empire

Sala fighting with Tiger, symbol of Hoysala Empire
Languages	Kannada
Capitals	Regal Capital (early):Belur, (later): Halebidu
Other Capitals	Sosevur, Kannanur, Tiruvannamalai, Vijayanagara
Government	Monarchy
Preceding state	Western Chalukya, Western Ganga Dynasty
Succeeding states	Vijayanagar Empire

The Hoysala Empire (Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ), at their peak throughout the 13th century ruled large parts of southern India. Their were in power from about1000 to 1346 CE, with Belur and later Halebidu, Karnataka as their regal capital. The Hoysala Empire is remembered today primarily for its architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka, the finest examples of which are found in the cities of Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura. The Hoysala kings were influenced by Jainism and Hinduism. King Vishnuvardhana and his successors were followers of Vaishnavism. Kannada was the native language of the Hoysala Kings. They encouraged both Kannada and Sanskrit literature. The Hoysala era is considered a golden age in the development of art, architecture and religion. Literature in Kannada language in the Vaishnava, Shaiva and Jain traditions flourished. Many great Sanskrit works spanning Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita philosophies were written. Three of India's great philosophers, Ramanujacharya, Basavanna and Madhvacharya lived during this time and propounded their philosophy. Architecture in the Vesara or Karnata dravida tradition reached its peak of expression.

Origin and early dynasty

Hoysala architecture in Belur, Karnataka

The origin of the name "Hoysala" is part of popular Kannada folklore. Early in his youth, Sala, a member of what was at that time a tribe, was instructed by his Jain guru Sudatta, to strike dead a tiger he encountered in the vicinity of the temple of the goddess Vasantika at Sosevur. Guru Sudatta Muni was teaching his disciples at the temple. The word "strike" literally translates to "hoy" in Hale Kannada (Old Kannada). Hence the name "Hoy-sala". The first written appearance of this legend is the Belur inscription of Vishnuvardhana. However, inconsistencies of facts that are associated with the Sala story, have prevented historians in giving credence to it.^[1] However, just about every Hoysala temple has a sculpture showing the fight between Sala and the tiger, either at the doorway leading to the mantapa or on top of the Sukanasi (tower of vestibule connecting shrine and the main hall). Some historians speculate that the legend may have gained importance after the victory of Vishnuvardhana over the Cholas at Talakadu, the tiger being the royal emblem of the Cholas.

Some Hoysala inscriptions state that Sala hailed from Shashakapura (Sosevur). Historians have argued that the founders of the dynasty hailed from hill regions of Angadi in Mudigere taluk of Chikmagalur District.^[2] Angadi has been identified as Sosevur. The fact that they were originally a family of hill chieftains from Malnad Karnataka (Malepas) is confirmed by their title Maleparolganda or lord of the Male chiefs which is used frequently in their inscriptions.^[3] A claim has been made that the Hoysalas find their origins in the coastal areas of Uttara Kannada district and another that they were descendants of the ancient Velir people who were indigenous to the malnad Karnataka and existed since the days of Emperor Ashoka.^[4]

Some Historians have identified chieftains earlier to Nripa Kama II, father of Vinayaditya. Their first family record starts from 950 with one Arekalla followed by Maruga as the chief. Munda the chief after Nripa Kama I was possibly the ruler up to 1026.^[5] He was followed by the popularly known Nripa kama II who held titles like Permanadi indicating an early Western Ganga Dynasty alliance.^[6] From above claims from historians it may be concluded that the Hoysalas were hill people of Malnad Karnataka. Hoysalas began their rule as subordinates of the Chalukyas of Kalyani and gradually established their own empire in Karnataka. Hoysala period is remembered today as one of the brightest periods in the history of Karnataka, next only to the Vijayanagara Empire. Famous kings among the Hoysalas were Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II and Veera Ballala III.

History

During the 11th. century, the Hoysala chiefs distinguished themselves by serving their overlords the Western Chalukyas in their campaigns against the Cholas and the kingdom of Malwa. They also cultivated marital relationships with the Chalukyas in this period. The Hoysalas rose as a prominent feudatory during the long rule of Vinayaditya. During the time of Ereyanga, they moved their capital from Sosevur to Belur. Under Vishnuvardhana, the Hoysalas achieved for the first time the dignity of a real kingdom.^[7] The Hoysalas became an independent power by defeating the Chalukyas during the rule of Veera Ballala II and were the paramount rulers in Southern deccan thereafter. During this time peninsular India saw a four way struggle for hegemony, the other kingdoms being the Pandyas, Kakatiya and Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.^[8] The Hoysala dynasty's capital was initially located at Belur where they ruled for about twenty five years. Later they relocated their capital to Halebidu during the rule of Vishnuvardhana. The Hoysalas continued to patron art and literature during the peak of their empire. Vishnuvardhana wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas, and in commemoration of his victory, built the Vijayanarayana (Chennakeshava) Temple at Belur. His commander Ketamalla built the famous Hoysaleshwara Temple in Halebid. Though Vishnuvardhana did not succeed in his efforts to overthrow the Chalukyas, his grandson Veera Ballala II not only freed himself from subordination, but also defeated Seuna Bhillama V at Soraturu in 1190, after defeating Chalukya King Someshwara IV in 1187. Popular Kannada folklore suggests that it was during the time of Veera Ballala II, that the city of Bangalore was founded.^[9] Veera Ballala II repulsed the attacks by the Pandyas of Tamil Nadu and later and assumed the title Cholarajyapratishtacharya or "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom". His titles were Dakshina Chakravarthi, Hoysala Chakravarthi. Some historians opine he was the greatest of the Hoysala monarchs.^[10]

Later, in the days of his son Vira Narasimha II, the Hoysalas also secured a foothold in Tamil Nadu. The Tamil city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam became the second capital of the Hoysalas. The Hoysalas were regarded as practically the arbiters of South Indian politics.^[11] Veera Ballala III, the last Hoysala, was known for his military prowess. He expanded his kingdom to encompass all of South India, south of the Krishna River and faced multiple attacks from the Delhi Sultan whose control over the region had extended south to present day Maharashtra. The rule of Veera Ballala II and Veera Ballala III saw the consolidation and domination of Southern Deccan as a single empire.^[12] During the later part of the rule of Veera Ballala III, Tiruvannamalai in Tamil Nadu had been made an alternate capital, from where Ballala III fought the Sultan of Madurai. The Vijayanagara Empire, which was founded during his time at Hosapattana, an alternate capital on the banks of Tungabhadra River,^[13] later to be called Vijayanagara by his commanders Harihara (Hakka) and Bukkaraya (Bukka) effectively became the new empire of South India, upon Veera Ballala's death in battle in Madhurai (1343).^[14]
 

Architecture

Main article: Hoysala architecture

Symmetrical Hoysala architecture, Mandya district

The Hoysala claim to immortality is perhaps more because of their patronage of art and architecture than because of their conquests. Their era saw brisk temple building activity throughout the length and breadth of their kingdom. This they did though constantly under threat from the Pandyas from the south and the Seuna from the north. The Hoysala style of architecture, an offshoot of the Kalyani Chalukya style,^[15] shows distinct Dravidian influences and is considered by many historians to be an independent tradition of architecture.^[16] The sculptures are said to be a picture gallery on stone executed with detail and precision.

The Hoysala style of sculpting is an example of art focussed on exhibiting feminine beauty, grace and Physique.^[17] Regarding the Vimana, it is said the Hoysala style focussed more on delicate finish rather than soaring ambition and possesses an elastic beauty about it.^[18] Temples at Belur, Halebidu (both of which are a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site),^[19] Somanathapur, Arasikere, Amrithapura, Belavadi, [[Nuggehalli] etc. in Karnataka have prime examples of Hoysala art. While most visitors find their temples at Belur and Halebidu awe inspiring because of the sculptural beauty, these temples actually do not convey the full logic and beauty of Hoysala architecture, the way smaller temples built by them do.^[20]

The Chennakashava temple at Belur built by Dasoja and Chavana of Balligavi, Shimoga District in 1117, the Hoysaleshwara Temple at Halebidu built by master builder Kedaroja in 1121 and the Keshava temple at Somanathapura built by Ruvari Malithamma 1279 are perhaps the finest examples of the Hoysala architecture. The outer walls of the temple contain an intricate array of stone sculptures. The great temple of Halebidu, which, had it been completed is one of buildings on which the advocate of Hindu architecture would desire to take his stand.^[21] and is considered as a supreme climax of Indian architecture.^[22] One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time and is  called as Karnata Dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.^[23]

Religion

Sree Madhvacharya

See also: Ramanujacharya, Basavanna, and Madhvacharya

While Vedic religion gained popularity from the time of Vishnuvardhana, many backward classes embraced Jainism and Virashaivaism. However, the Hoysala times saw the decline in popularity of Jainsim and the growth of Vedic Hinduism, a practice that continued into the Vijayanagar empire. However, the kings remained tolerant to all religions. Shantala Devi, queen of Vishnuvardhana was a Jaina herself, but commissioned the Kappe Chennigaraya temple in Belur. During the rule of the Hoysalas, three important religious developments took place in present day Karnataka.
Ramanujacharya
Ramanujacharya was born in SriPerumbudur (1017) in Tamil Nadu. While his predecessor Shankaracharya taught the philosophy of strict monism (Advaita), Ramanujacharya propounded the qualified monism or Vishishtadvaita. In his youth, as a student of the great Advaita teacher Yadvaprakasha of Kanchi he learnt the Vedas and Upanishad but later disagreed with his guru (teacher) and took to self study. The Vaishnava saint Yamuna who headed the Srirangam matha had heard of Ramanujacharya's scholarly attainment, encouraged him to move to Srirangam and initiated him into Srivaishnavism (a sect of Vaishnava faith) and eventually Ramanujacharya succeeded as the head of the monastery after the death of his guru. It was during this time that Ramanujacharya wrote Sribhashya, a critique on the Advaita philosophy of Sankaracharya. He upheld the worship of God with many attributes and provided flexibility in ritual practices to accommodate Shudras (lower caste) in temple worship thus providing emancipation for all. Ramanujacharya toured the whole of India teaching his philosophy. During this time he came into conflict with the Chola king of Tamil country who was a strict Shaiva (worshipper of Lord Shiva). Ramanujacharya came to Hoysala country and founded a Matha (monastery) at Melkote.^[24] He lived here for many years and finally went back to Srirangam. He lived to the age of 120 and died in 1137.
Basavanna
In the early 12th century, a religious leader like none before, Basavanna (or Basava) was born in Bagewadi, Bijapur district in a Brahmin family. He grew up in an age of strict Hindu caste system. This region was then under the control of the Western Chalukyas. They were the overlords of the Hoysalas of South Karnataka region. However by the time Basava began to preach his vision of a casteless society, the political winds had changed. The southern Kalachuri had usurped the throne at Kalyani and Bijjala II was in power. Having refused to accept the Brahmin thread ceremony, Basava who was already very erudite in Sanskrit and Kannada left for Kudala Sangama where he came under the influence of ascetic Ishanyaguru. Basava's stay at Kudala Sangama changed him. He gained a vision, broadened his knowledge and he had glimpses of his life's mission.^[25] Basava then left for Mangalawada and took service under king Bijjala II and soon rose to a position of authority as a member of the kings council. It was during this time that he began to teach his beliefs in simple Kannada. Large groups of people seeking emancipation used to gather around him and listen to his discourses. When Bijjala II captured Kalyani, the capital of the Western Chalukyas, Basava moved with the king. From the Anubhava Mantapa (a place of religious gatherings), Basava and other great Virashaiva saints like Akka Mahadevi from Shimoga, Allam Prabhu, Madivala Machayya and others spoke of their philosophy and mystic experiences. A new religious order called Virashaivaism with no caste system was being established. A new and unique form of poetry called Vachanas and literature called Vachana sahitya was born. Basava's unorthodox ways gained popularity and people from all over the deccan, hearing of Basava's fame and teachings joined the congregations. They were the Sharanas (devotees) of Lord Shiva. Many famous poets in the Hoysala court like Harihara, Raghavanka were Virashaiva by faith.
Madhvacharya
Another great saint who influenced the growth the Vedic Hinduism during the Hoysala time was Madhvacharya.^[26] He was born in Pajaka, Udupi (1238) in present day Karnataka. His teachings had a great influence on the haridasa movement in South India during the 14th -16th century which helped foster strong Hindu sentiment during the rule of the Vijayanagar Empire. Purandaradasa (father of carnatic music) and other great dasas of the time, Kanakadasa, Vyasatirtha and others were followers of Madhvacharya. Many of the Madhwa saints were rajguru to the Vijayanagar kings. Tradition holds that Madhwacharya was an incarnation of Vayu, Hanuman and Bhima. His guru Achyutapreksha, a Advaita saint taught him the vedas and Upanishad. However, when Madhvacharya began to disagree with the philosophy and search for new avenues to answer his questions, his teacher encouraged him. Having defeated his own guru in debates he travelled India twice, trouncing many scholars in debates. He initiated Naraharitirtha, the minister of Kalinga into his order. The images of Lord Krishna and Balarama at Udupi were brought by him from Dwaraka. He wrote 37 works on Dvaita philosophy (Dulaism) in Sanskrit and founded eight mathas in Udupi. He was critical of the philosophy of the teachings of Shankaracharya and argued that the world is real and not an illusion. Though a devotee of Lord Vishnu, Madhvacharya did not oppose the worship of Shiva. The teachings of Madhvacharya enriched Kannada literature through the creation of devotional songs by the Kannada haridasas. This unique and original poetic literature, a sum contribution from all sects of Hindu society is called Dasa Sahitya (Haridasa literature).

Literature

Old Kannada inscription, early 12th century Hoysala

The Hoysala age saw the ascent of revered Kannada and Sanskrit poets.

Kannada

Kannada literature saw the ascent of great poets^[27] Famous among them were Rudrabhatta the first Brahmin poet who wrote Jagannatha Vijaya, Janna who wrote Yashodharacharite, Ananthanathapurana, and Nemichandra who wrote Lilavati and Neminathapurana. They were patronised by Veera Ballala II. Haridasa Naraharitirtha composed many early devaranama of Lord Vishnu. Harihara whose greatest contributions are Girijakalyana in Champu style, Basavarajadevararagale in Ragale style, Pampasatakaand Sivaganadaragalegalu was patronised by Narasimha I. Raghavanka of Hampi who established the Shatpadi style in Kannada wrote Harishchandrakavya, Siddaramapurana, Somanathacharite, Hariharamahatva, Viresvaracharita and Sarabhacharitra. Nagachandra who wrote Ramachandra Charitapuranam and Mallinathapurana was patronised by Veera Ballala I, Rajaditya who was patronised by Vishnuvardhana wrote Vyavaharaganita, Kshetraganita and Lilavati on mathematics. Padmarasa who was patronised by Narasimha I wrote Dikshabodhe and would later become the hero of another work Padmarajapurana. Mallikarjuna wrote Suktisudharnava, Keshiraja wrote Shabdamanidarpana, Bhanduvarma wrote Harivamsabhyudaya and Jivasambhdana. Sisumayana introduced a new form of composition called Sangatya wrote Anjanacharita and Tripuradhahana, Andayya wrote Madana Vijaya, Kumudendu wrote a Jaina version of Ramayana, Ratta Kavi wrote Rattasutra a work on treatment of natural phenomenon like rain, earthquakes and lightening, Nagaraja wrote Punyasrava. Palkuriki Somanatha from Godavari district wrote Silasampadane, Sahasragananama and Pancaratna. Devakavi wrote Kusumavali and Somaraja wrote Sringarasara. Sumanobana were also famous.

Sanskrit

The Hoysala period was an age of great Sanskrit works^[28] Madhwacharya, propounder of the dvaita philosophy wrote Rigbhshya on Brahmasutras, Anuvyakhya, a commentary on Upanishads and Bhagavadgita, an epitome on Mahabharatha called Bharatatatparyanirnaya, a commentary on hymns of Rig Veda called Rigvedavyakhya and a number of polemical works rebutting the doctrines of other schools of Vedas. Ramanujacharya expounded his Vishisadwaita from his Matha in Melkote^[29] Vidyatirtha wrote Rudraprshnabhashya. These works were later absorbed and assimilated by Sayanacharya, brother of Vidyaranya.^[30] Bharatasvamin who was patronised by Ramanatha wrote a commentary on Samaveda, Shadgurusishya wrote commentary on Aitareya Brahmana and Aranyaka, Katyayana wrote Sarvanukramani. A family of hereditary poets called the Vidyacharkravarti (whose names have not been preserved) wrote Gadyakarnamrita describing a war between Vira Narasimha II and the Pandyas, Rukminikalyana (poems), Alankarasarvasva and Kavyaprakasa. Kalyani Devi, Trivikarma and Naryana Pandita were other famous Sanskrit scholars of this time. Sanskrit literature were mostly of the devotional kind.

Administration

Map

Garuda pillar, 12th century old Kannada inscription, Halebidu

Governance
The Hoysalas followed the Western Chalukya and Western Ganga Dynasty method of governance.^[31] Some historians opine that in the Hoysala empire which was highly centralized, the king sought the advice of five ministers (Pancha Pradhanas) while others claim a higher number.^[32]. Under any circumstance, by the 13th century, with the empire having grown to its largest extent, the number of ministers had grown considerably with each having limited authority. Inscriptions mention many names with responsibilities tied to foreign affairs (Sandhivigrahi), treasurer (Mahabhandari or Hiranyabhandari), personal secretary (Paramavishvasi), chief master of robes (Mahapasayita), justice (Dharmadhikari), central register or Kaditha, head of the State Secretariat (Srikaranadhikari) etc. Some ministers also oversaw clusters of departments (Sarvadhikari). The military affairs were handled by Dandanayaka also called Senadhipati, commanders who were transferable.

The Garudas were the elite bodyguards of kings and queens who committed suicide upon the demise of their master.^[33] They were known as lenkas (heroes) or jolavalis (indebted to the king for food) and velavalis (those who stood by the king at all times). They served the king the way the mythical eagle Garuda served Lord Vishnu. Virgal (Hero stone) erected in memory of such heroes are called Garuda pillar. The Garuda pillar at the Hoysaleshwara temple in Halebidu depicts heroes brandishing knives and others cutting their own heads. Kuvara Lakshma, a minister and body guard of Veera Ballala II took his own life and that of his wife and other body guards upon the death of his master. The details of his loyalty is etched on this shasana (inscription).
Land management
The kingdom was divided into Nadu and Vishayas.^[34] Further division of land was into Kampanas and Deshas. Under the caretaker Dandanayaka were Mahapradhana (minister), Bhandari (treasurer), Senabove (clerk) and Heggades (junior officers). Feudatory families like Alupas, Santharas, Chengalvas, Kongalvas, Sindas were allowed to continue to govern their respective territories. The Hoysalas minted gold coins with Kannada and Devanagari legends such as Nolambavadigonda, Talakadugonda.^[35] Their gold coin was called Honnu or Gadyana and weighed 62 grains of gold. Pana or Hana was 1/10 of the Honnu. Haga was ¼ of the Pana. Visa was ¼th of Haga. There were coins called Bele and Kani as well. It must be noted that some of these terms Hana, Bele are still used in Kannada language and mean "money" and "cost" respectively.

Agriculture and Trade

Irrigation
The administration sustained itself through agriculture^[36] Land grants were made by the kings to religious beneficiaries and persons rewarded for services rendered to the king. The main land owners were the Brahmins and Jains. The type of land grant was generally wetland which was already under cultivation. This was popular in the fertile river valleys of the Tungabhadra and Kaveri. In addition, clearing of forests for cultivation was viewed favourably as it not only brought new sources of revenue but also created job opportunities for the landless and introduced forest dwellers to a more agrarian life style. Sometimes wasteland was also given as gift. Whenever land was cleared for cultivation, it was on a large scale. Knowledge of agriculture included assessing irrigation systems like tanks, reservoirs with sluices, canals and wells which were built and maintained at the expense of local villagers. The more impressive irrigation tanks such as Vishnusagara, Shantisagara, Ballalarayasagara were created at the expense of the state. Irrespective of whether the expense and control came from local or state bodies, organizing labour to till the land was taken up at the village and across village levels and the job of cultivation was largely that of the landless. Cattle farming was attractive in the highlands (malnad regions) from where diary products, fruits and spices came. Paddy and corn were popular in the plains (Bailnad). In Kannada country, key figures in rural areas were the rich land owners called gavunda or gauda and heggade. They are mentioned in inscriptions relating to land transactions, maintenance of irrigation, collection of taxes and works of village council. The praja gavunda (gavunda of people) was lower in status than the wealthy prabhu gavunda (lord of gavundas). The gavundas sometimes had a dual role as village representatives and appointees of the state. Some judicial responsibilities were also included like raising a militia if required.
Imports and Exports
Import of horses on the western seaboard was a flourishing business and inscriptions speak of many Brahmin merchants who were active. Arabs made immense wealth from the unending need for horses from Indian kingdoms.^[37] Rich forest produce like Teak was exported through ports of present day Kerela. Merchants from this region settled down in Arasikere, Halebidu in addition to Jain traders. Many virgal (hero stone) in the coastal areas depict ships indicating active sea trade and also a technologically developed shipping fleets. Piracy was common and virgals made for fallen heros have been found. Many inscriptions mention a flourishing textile industry. Trade with overseas kingdoms reached unprecedented levels. Sung dynasty records from China mention Indian merchants in ports of South China. Chinese interest in Indian astrology and Alchemy is well known. South India exported Elephants, textiles, spices, medicinal plants, precious stones, pottery, salt made from salt pans, jewels, gold, ivory, Rhino horn, ebony and camphor to China. The same products and others like aloe wood, perfumes, Sandalwood and condiments reached western ports like Dhofar, Aden, Siraf on the Persian gulf. Cairo and Alexandria were in active trade across the Arabian sea.
Tax system
Tax assessment was done by the village assembly who were responsible for collecting for the government. Land revenue was called Siddhaya and included Kula or original assessment and various cesses. Cesses were collected in proportion to Kula. Taxes were levied on professions, marriage, goods in transit on chariots, carriages, domesticated animals. Taxes on commodities like gold, precious stones, perfumes, Sandalwood, ropes, yarn, residence, hearth, shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses and produce like black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar are mentioned in records. Cattle tax was called balavana and looms tax was called maggadere. Fines for violating laws were also collected. In addition to collecting taxes, the village assembly could levy tax for a specific purpose like construction of a water tanks.

Society

Women

Elaborate carvings of Hoysala art, Makaratorana

The Hoysala society was comparatively liberal. Woman enjoyed administrative powers like queen Umadevi who administered Halebidu in the absence of Veera Ballala II.^[38] Women made progress in the realms of music, dance, literature, poetry, politics and administration. Queen Shantaladevi was a noted dancer. Akka Mahadevi, a great Vachana poet who renounced the temporal world in favour of one of devotion became an example for woman of the day. The practice of sati, was prevalent and prostitution enjoyed social acceptance. devadasis (temple dancers) were common in temples and some were well educated. They came to be treated with deference. Because of their accomplishments they had more freedom of movement in that they could distance themselves from social conventions to a greater degree. Like in most of India, the Indian caste system was conspicuously present. Architects (Vishwakarmas), sculptors, quarry workers, goldsmiths and others whose trade directly or indirectly related to construction of temples were also prosperous due to the vigorous temple building activities undertaken. Some 1500 monuments built during these times helped spur business in transportation of raw materials for construction.
Town and market
Trade on the west coast brought many foreigners to India including Arabs, Jews, Persians, Chinese and from the Malay peninsula. Large scale migration of people from Kannada country to present day Tamil Nadu happened during this time. With the expansion of Hoysala territory in Tamil country, these immigrants went as officers and soldiers of the empire having been given land concessions. Migration of Tamil sculptors to Belur and Halebidu is also apparent from the presence of some Chola style sculptures in a few Hoysala temples.^[39] The marketplace was the nuclei of urban centers. This is where materials and produce was brought and exchanged hands. These were the locals of recurring festivals and fairs. In South India, towns were called Pattana or Pattanam and the market place Naraga or Nagaram. Important market places gradually grew into townships and so did famous pilgrim places. Shravanabelagola in Hassan district, the seat of the Hoysala empire developed from a place of religion in the 7th century to an important settlement by the 12th century. Many rich Jains were established here. The market place was also closely tied with temple administration.
Role of temples
Temple construction, which was prolific was not entirely for religious reasons. Temples acted as local courts or as surrogate courts, especially when built from royal endowments. They were visualised as palaces and the rituals marking daily routine of the deity imitated those of the king. Temples also received local patronage, especially from rich landlords. Temples built from royal patronage took on a aura of leading ceremonial centers. When Vishnuvardhana built the Vaishnava Chennakeshava temple at Belur, the town was transformed into a great city. Competition from the Shaiva merchants of Halebidu resulted in the construction of the famous Hoysaleshvara temple, which brought the town into prominence.^[40] Temples not built from royal patronage evolved into complex institutions related not only to religious requirements but also to fiscal, political and cultural needs. These temples were normally built in rural areas. Irrespective of source patronage, temples were also establishments that provided employment to hundreds of people. Temple funds maintained families of priests, record keepers, administrators, guards, service providers, garland makers, dancers, devadasis, sculptors, carpenters and craftsmen. Temples were also source of loans. Inscriptions mention 12%-15% interest on loans. In short, Hindu temples began to take on the shape of wealthy Buddhist monasteries.
Language
Usage of Kannada and Sanskrit were extensive. Temples served as local schools where learned Brahmins imparted education in Sanskrit. Schools of higher learning were called Ghatikas. Jain and Buddhist monasteries educated novice monks. Kannada the local language found extensive use in multiple areas. The rise of devotional movements saw the usage of Kannada as a means to express ecstatic experience of closeness to the deity (Vachanas). At another level, Kannada was used in local and state archives to record locations and rights related to land grants. Many literary works were written in the local language on palm leaves which were tied together. Where as in the previous centuries, Jain works had dominated Kannada literature, Shaiva, early Brahminical works also became popular. Works in Sanskrit included, poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama. Inscriptions were of three kinds. They were in Kannada, Sanskrit and also bilingual. Those sections of bilingual inscriptions that stated the title, genealogy, origin myths of the king and benedictions tended to be in Sanskrit but the actual terms of the grants which included information on the land, its boundaries, participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, witnesses etc. would be in Kannada to ensure the content was well understood by the locals without ambiguity.^[41]

See also

Hoysala architecture
Hassan District

Notes